Minority Rights in Islam: From Dhimmi to Citizen

Until the nineteenth century, at least dozen legal traditions were practised in the Ottoman Empire: five non-Islamic (Jewish, Armenian, Orthodox, Catholic, and Capt) along with four Sunni (Hanafi,Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali) and several Shiite (such as Zaydiyya and Jafariyya). During the late nineteenth century, under European influence, secular law (such as international commercial courts) was also added to the Ottoman legal system. Each community produced and practiced its own canon law, thereby contributing to the diversity of legal discourse. The state did not produce any of these laws nor did itsingle out any of them as the official law of the state; instead, Muslim and non-Muslim civil groups crafted them. The state stood in equaldistance to all and equally respected each one.